Epictetus (c. 50–135 AD)
Epictetus was a Stoic philosopher whose life was marked by extreme contrasts. He was born into slavery in Phrygia and served the Roman freedman Epaphroditus. During this period he suffered severe physical abuse, which left him with a permanent disability. Despite these circumstances, he developed a philosophy of inner freedom that permeates his entire body of work.
After his manumission, Epictetus settled in Rome and founded a school of philosophy, where he taught until his death. His teachings were recorded by his student Arrian and handed down in two principal works: the Enchiridion (Handbook), a concise summary of his core teachings, and the Discourses, more extensive records of his classroom conversations and lectures.
Epictetus's central teaching is the distinction between what is within our power (prohairesis) — our judgements, desires, aversions, and acts of will — and what is not within our power — our body, property, reputation, and external circumstances. This distinction is the foundation of genuine happiness and inner freedom. He taught that we do not suffer because of external events, but because of our judgements about those events.
The concepts of orexis (desire) and ekklisis (aversion), as well as synkatathesis (assent), are central to Epictetus's system. He emphasises that impulses are natural in themselves, but that through conscious assent — or its withholding — we determine whether they translate into action. This doctrine of control over inner movements later exerted a lasting influence on Marcus Aurelius and the entire Stoic tradition.
Although physically unfree, Epictetus considered himself freer than any emperor — because he governed his own inner disposition. His philosophy of accepting what cannot be changed while training what lies within one's own power remains one of the most practical and accessible forms of ancient philosophy.